What Is Monetary Policy?

Monetary policy refers to the actions taken by a nation's central bank to regulate the money supply and the cost of borrowing in the economy. Monetary policies are used to achieve specific economic goals, such as controlling inflation, managing employment levels, or encouraging economic growth.

To implement monetary policy, central banks can adjust interest rates, conduct open market operations (OMOs), and alter reserve requirements for commercial banks. By influencing the supply and cost of borrowing money, they can either increase economic activity or cool down an overheating economy.

How Does Monetary Policy Work?

Monetary policies can be either expansionary or contractionary.

Expansionary monetary policy

Expansionary monetary policies typically involve lowering interest rates while increasing the money supply to stimulate economic growth. They are often implemented during recessions or periods of low economic activity. The goal is to make borrowing cheaper, encouraging consumers to spend and businesses to invest, thereby boosting overall economic activity.

Imagine that the central bank of Country X wants to stimulate the economy by lowering interest rates. Jane and John, residents of Country X, notice that borrowing costs have decreased. Jane decides to take out a loan to start a new business, while John takes advantage of lower interest rates to buy a new home. As such, demand for goods and services increases, leading to job creation and further economic activity.

Example: 2008 financial crisis

During the 2008 financial crisis, the U.S. government implemented an expansionary monetary policy to revive the economy. They lowered interest rates and introduced quantitative easing (QE), i.e., buying government and mortgage-backed securities. This increased the money supply and made borrowing cheaper. Consequently, consumers spent more, businesses invested more, and the economy began to recover.

Contractionary monetary policy

Contractionary monetary policy involves raising interest rates and decreasing the money supply to slow economic growth and combat inflation. By making borrowing more expensive, the central bank aims to reduce spending and investment, decreasing overall demand and cooling down the economy.

Imagine that the central bank of Country Y wants to control rising inflation by increasing interest rates. Residents Sarah and Mike find that the cost of borrowing has gone up. Sarah decides to delay her plans to expand her business, and Mike postpones buying a new car. Consequently, consumer demand falls, and businesses see a decline in sales, which helps lower inflation and stabilize prices.

Example: early 1980s

In the early 1980s, the Federal Reserve used a contractionary monetary policy to combat high inflation in the United States. The Fed raised interest rates, making borrowing more expensive. This successfully brought down inflation but also led to a temporary increase in unemployment.
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